Contracts Law
This section covers the core institutions of the law of obligations — from contract formation to termination, from performance to adaptation. The articles are prepared in light of the Turkish Code of Obligations (No. 6098).
Joint and Several Liability: The Creditor's Rights and the Internal Relationship Among Debtors
Chained liability under TBK m.162-169
How does joint and several liability arise, what may the creditor demand from each debtor? The internal recourse relationship and application of TBK m.162-169.
Joint and several liability (müteselsil borçluluk) is a strong form of liability in which several debtors are each liable to the creditor for the whole debt, and the creditor may demand the whole or part of the debt from any of them. Articles 162-169 TCO regulate this institution, which offers the creditor wide flexibility in collection.
Arising of Joint and Several Liability — TBK m.162
Under TBK m.162, where each of several debtors declares to the creditor that he accepts liability for the whole debt, joint and several liability arises. In the absence of such a declaration, joint and several liability arises only in cases provided by law.
Principal statutory cases include damage caused jointly (TBK m.61), partners in an ordinary partnership (TBK m.638), partners in a general partnership (TCC m.236), several sureties (TBK m.587) and heirs' liability before partition of the estate (Civil Code m.681).
Creditor's Rights — TBK m.163
The creditor may demand performance of all or part of the debt from any debtor of choice (TBK m.163/1). Until the debt is fully performed, all debtors remain liable. Partial collection from one debtor does not affect the creditor's right against the others for the remainder.
This rule offers great security: financial difficulty of one debtor does not affect the liability of the others. The creditor is free to target the financially strongest debtor; the internal allocation among debtors need not concern the creditor.
Effect of One Debtor's Acts — TBK m.165-167
Unless statute or contract provides otherwise, the act of one joint debtor cannot aggravate the position of the others (TBK m.165). Personal defences available to one debtor cannot be raised by the others; but common defences are available to all (TBK m.164).
Performance or set-off by one debtor extinguishes the debt for all. Conversely, release granted to one debtor releases only that debtor as a rule; the others' liability is reduced only by the released debtor's internal share.
Internal Recourse — TBK m.167
The debtor who has paid may, unless statute or contract suggests otherwise, recover from the others the portion exceeding his internal share (TBK m.167/1). The internal allocation is presumed equal unless otherwise required by contract or the nature of the matter.
Where a debtor cannot pay his internal share, the unpaid amount is distributed between the recoursing debtor and the other debtors (TBK m.167/2). Thus joint and several liability allocates risk not only to the creditor's advantage but also among the debtors themselves.
Practical Considerations
In contractual disputes, not only the signed text but also offer correspondence, revision history, invoices, delivery records, payment records, formal notices and the parties' subsequent conduct are taken into account. The formation, performance and termination of a contract often acquire meaning only through these ancillary documents.
Form requirements, authority of representation, penalty clauses, exclusion-of-liability provisions, standard terms and consumer-protection rules may all affect the validity or enforceability of a contract. In standard-form documents in particular, the other party must be informed, express acceptance obtained, and onerous provisions specifically highlighted.
Before any dispute arises, the scope of obligations, delivery date, defect notice, default notice, interest and competent-court clauses should be drafted explicitly. Vague provisions may give rise to interpretation disputes and to difficulties of proof later on.
Relevant Statutory Provisions
- TBK m.162Arising of joint and several liability
Original (Turkish, official):
MADDE 162- Birden çok borçludan her biri, alacaklıya karşı borcun tamamından sorumlu olmayı kabul ettiğini bildirirse, müteselsil borçluluk doğar. Böyle bir bildirim yoksa, müteselsil borçluluk ancak kanunda öngörülen hâllerde doğar.
English summary (non-binding):
Where each of several debtors declares to the creditor acceptance of liability for the whole debt, joint and several liability arises. Absent such a declaration, joint and several liability arises only in cases provided by law.
Source: mevzuat.gov.tr · last reviewed: 2026-05-12
- TBK m.163Relationship between creditor and debtors
Original (Turkish, official):
MADDE 163- Alacaklı, borcun tamamının veya bir kısmının ifasını, dilerse borçluların hepsinden, dilerse yalnız birinden isteyebilir. Borçluların sorumluluğu, borcun tamamı ödeninceye kadar devam eder.
English summary (non-binding):
The creditor may demand performance of all or part of the debt either from all the debtors or only from one. The debtors' liability continues until the whole debt is paid.
Source: mevzuat.gov.tr · last reviewed: 2026-05-12
- TBK m.164Raising defences
Original (Turkish, official):
MADDE 164- Müteselsil borçlulardan biri, alacaklıya karşı, ancak onunla kendi arasındaki kişisel ilişkilerden veya müteselsil borcun sebep ya da konusundan doğan def’i ve itirazları ileri sürebilir. Müteselsil borçlulardan biri ortak def’i ve itirazları ileri sürmezse, diğerlerine karşı sorumlu olur.
English summary (non-binding):
A joint debtor may raise against the creditor only defences arising from the personal relationship between them or from the cause or subject of the joint debt. A joint debtor who fails to raise common defences is liable to the others.
Source: mevzuat.gov.tr · last reviewed: 2026-05-12
- TBK m.165No aggravation of co-debtors' position
Original (Turkish, official):
MADDE 165- Kanun veya sözleşme ile aksi belirlenmedikçe, borçlulardan biri kendi davranışıyla diğer borçluların durumunu ağırlaştıramaz.
English summary (non-binding):
Unless statute or contract provides otherwise, no debtor may by his own conduct aggravate the position of the other debtors.
Source: mevzuat.gov.tr · last reviewed: 2026-05-12
- TBK m.166Extinguishment of the debt
Original (Turkish, official):
MADDE 166- Borçlulardan biri, ifa veya takasla borcun tamamını veya bir kısmını sona erdirmişse, bu oranda diğer borçluları da borçtan kurtarmış olur. Borçlulardan biri, alacaklıya ifada bulunmaksızın borçtan kurtulmuşsa, diğer borçlular bundan, ancak durumun veya borcun niteliğinin elverdiği ölçüde yararlanabilirler. Alacaklının borçlulardan biriyle yaptığı ibra sözleşmesi, diğer borçluları da ibra edilen borçlunun iç ilişkideki borca katılma payı oranında borçtan kurtarır.
English summary (non-binding):
Where one debtor has extinguished all or part of the debt by performance or set-off, the other debtors are released to the same extent. Where one debtor has been released without performance to the creditor, the others benefit only insofar as the circumstances or nature of the debt allow. A release agreement between the creditor and one debtor also releases the others to the extent of the released debtor's internal share.
Source: mevzuat.gov.tr · last reviewed: 2026-05-12
- TBK m.167Internal relationship — right of recourse
Original (Turkish, official):
MADDE 167- Aksi kararlaştırılmadıkça veya borçlular arasındaki hukuki ilişkinin niteliğinden anlaşılmadıkça, borçlulardan her biri, alacaklıya yapılan ifadan, birbirlerine karşı eşit paylarla sorumludurlar. Kendisine düşen paydan fazla ifada bulunan borçlunun, ödediği fazla miktarı diğer borçlulardan isteme hakkı vardır. Bu durumda borçlu, her bir borçluya ancak payı oranında rücu edebilir. Borçlulardan birinden alınamayan miktarı, diğer borçlular eşit olarak üstlenmekle yükümlüdürler.
English summary (non-binding):
Unless otherwise agreed or arising from the nature of the legal relationship between them, each debtor is liable to the others, for the performance rendered to the creditor, in equal shares. A debtor who has performed beyond his share has the right to recover the excess from the others, but only in proportion to each debtor's share. Any amount that cannot be recovered from one debtor is borne equally by the others.
Source: mevzuat.gov.tr · last reviewed: 2026-05-12
- TBK m.61Joint and several liability for joint damage
Original (Turkish, official):
MADDE 61- Birden çok kişi birlikte bir zarara sebebiyet verdikleri veya aynı zarardan çeşitli sebeplerden dolayı sorumlu oldukları takdirde, haklarında müteselsil sorumluluğa ilişkin hükümler uygulanır.
English summary (non-binding):
Where several persons have jointly caused damage, or are liable for the same damage on various grounds, the rules of joint and several liability apply to them.
Source: mevzuat.gov.tr · last reviewed: 2026-05-12
The statutory provisions are reproduced for information purposes only. The current and official text on mevzuat.gov.tr is authoritative.
Conclusion
Joint and several liability gives the creditor great flexibility in collection; for debtors, however, the inability to pay of one may have heavy consequences for the others. Before assuming such liability by contract, the internal allocation should be set out in writing, as it will be decisive in any subsequent recourse action.
This article is for information purposes only and does not constitute legal advice. If you would like professional assistance on a specific matter, you may request a consultation.
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