Contracts Law
This section covers the core institutions of the law of obligations — from contract formation to termination, from performance to adaptation. The articles are prepared in light of the Turkish Code of Obligations (No. 6098).
Contract Formation: Declaration of Intent, Offer and Acceptance
The formation of contract under TBK m.1-11
How is a contract formed? What are offer and acceptance, why must the essential elements coincide? Formation and form requirements under TBK m.1-11.
A contract is formed by the mutual and reciprocally consistent declarations of intent of the parties (TBK m.1). The first of these declarations is called 'offer' (icap), the second 'acceptance'. Their mutual coincidence is sufficient for formation; failure to agree on secondary points does not prevent contract formation.
The Offer (Icap) and Its Binding Force
The offer is a unilateral declaration of intent addressed to the other party, containing the essential elements of the contract, which together with acceptance brings the contract into being. To be binding, the offer must be directed to a specific addressee and be definite and contain the essential elements. Otherwise the statement is a mere 'invitation to offer' (e.g. shop window displays, price lists, advertisements, catalogue mailings).
Under TBK m.3, a person making an offer with a fixed period is bound until the period expires. An offer between persons present, without a fixed period, lapses if not accepted immediately (TBK m.4). For absent parties, the offer binds for a reasonable time normally required for a reply.
Acceptance and the Moment of Formation
Acceptance is the unequivocal expression directed to the offeror that the contract is to be formed on the terms of the offer. Acceptance differing from the offer's terms constitutes a new offer; the original offer lapses and the roles are reversed.
The contract takes effect not from the moment the acceptance reaches the offeror, but from when it is dispatched (TBK m.11/1). Silence is generally not acceptance; however, if no express acceptance is needed by reason of the matter or circumstances, the contract is deemed formed unless rejected within a reasonable time (TBK m.6).
Agreement on Essential Elements
Under TBK m.2, where the parties have agreed on the essential elements of the contract, it is deemed formed even if secondary points are unsettled. Disagreement on secondary points is resolved by the court according to the nature of the matter and good faith.
Essential elements vary by contract type: for sale, the goods and price; for lease, the leased item and rent; for work contracts, the nature of the work and price. Without coincidence of intent on these, no contract is formed.
Freedom of Form and Its Exceptions
The rule in Turkish law is freedom of form (TBK m.12/1): contracts are bound to no particular form unless statute provides otherwise. However, statute prescribes a validity form for some contracts — promises to sell immovables, suretyships, donations, construction in return for a share, marriage and inheritance contracts.
Failure to comply with the prescribed form generally results in absolute nullity (TBK m.12/2). Forms agreed by the parties are not statutory; unless proved otherwise, they are deemed validity forms.
Practical Considerations
In contractual disputes, not only the signed text but also offer correspondence, revision history, invoices, delivery records, payment records, formal notices and the parties' subsequent conduct are taken into account. The formation, performance and termination of a contract often acquire meaning only through these ancillary documents.
Form requirements, authority of representation, penalty clauses, exclusion-of-liability provisions, standard terms and consumer-protection rules may all affect the validity or enforceability of a contract. In standard-form documents in particular, the other party must be informed, express acceptance obtained, and onerous provisions specifically highlighted.
Before any dispute arises, the scope of obligations, delivery date, defect notice, default notice, interest and competent-court clauses should be drafted explicitly. Vague provisions may give rise to interpretation disputes and to difficulties of proof later on.
Relevant Statutory Provisions
- TBK m.1Contract formation — declarations of intent
Original (Turkish, official):
MADDE 1- Sözleşme, tarafların iradelerini karşılıklı ve birbirine uygun olarak açıklamalarıyla kurulur. İrade açıklaması, açık veya örtülü olabilir.
English summary (non-binding):
A contract is formed by the mutual and consistent declarations of intent of the parties. The declaration may be express or implied.
Source: mevzuat.gov.tr · last reviewed: 2026-05-12
- TBK m.2Agreement on essential elements
Original (Turkish, official):
MADDE 2- Taraflar sözleşmenin esaslı noktalarında uyuşmuşlarsa, ikinci derecedeki noktalar üzerinde durulmamış olsa bile, sözleşme kurulmuş sayılır. İkinci derecedeki noktalarda uyuşulamazsa hâkim, uyuşmazlığı işin özelliğine bakarak karara bağlar. Sözleşmelerin şekline ilişkin hükümler saklıdır.
English summary (non-binding):
Where the parties have agreed on the essential elements, the contract is deemed formed even if secondary points have not been settled. Disagreement on secondary points is resolved by the judge having regard to the nature of the matter. Provisions on the form of contracts are reserved.
Source: mevzuat.gov.tr · last reviewed: 2026-05-12
- TBK m.3Offer with a fixed period
Original (Turkish, official):
MADDE 3- Kabul için süre belirleyerek bir sözleşme yapılmasını öneren, bu sürenin sona ermesine kadar önerisiyle bağlıdır. Kabul bu süre içinde kendisine ulaşmazsa; öneren, önerisiyle bağlılıktan kurtulur.
English summary (non-binding):
A person who, in offering to conclude a contract, has fixed a period for acceptance is bound by the offer until that period expires. If acceptance does not reach the offeror within that period, the offeror is released from the offer.
Source: mevzuat.gov.tr · last reviewed: 2026-05-12
- TBK m.4Offer without a fixed period (between persons present)
Original (Turkish, official):
MADDE 4- Kabul için süre belirlenmeksizin hazır olan bir kişiye yapılan öneri hemen kabul edilmezse; öneren, önerisiyle bağlılıktan kurtulur. Telefon, bilgisayar gibi iletişim sağlayabilen araçlarla doğrudan iletişim sırasında yapılan öneri, hazır olanlar arasında yapılmış sayılır.
English summary (non-binding):
An offer made to a person present without a fixed period for acceptance releases the offeror if not immediately accepted. An offer made through direct communication by means such as telephone or computer is deemed made between persons present.
Source: mevzuat.gov.tr · last reviewed: 2026-05-12
- TBK m.6Silence as implied acceptance
Original (Turkish, official):
MADDE 6- Öneren, kanun veya işin özelliği ya da durumun gereği açık bir kabulü beklemek zorunda değilse, öneri uygun bir sürede reddedilmediği takdirde, sözleşme kurulmuş sayılır.
English summary (non-binding):
Where, by reason of the law, the nature of the matter or the circumstances, the offeror is not obliged to expect express acceptance, the contract is deemed formed if the offer is not rejected within a reasonable time.
Source: mevzuat.gov.tr · last reviewed: 2026-05-12
- TBK m.11Moment of formation and effect
Original (Turkish, official):
MADDE 11- Hazır olmayanlar arasında kurulan sözleşmeler, kabulün gönderildiği andan başlayarak hüküm doğurur. Açık bir kabulün gerekli olmadığı durumlarda, sözleşme önerinin ulaşma anından başlayarak hüküm doğurur.
English summary (non-binding):
Contracts between absent parties take effect from the moment acceptance is dispatched. Where no express acceptance is required, the contract takes effect from the moment the offer reaches the addressee.
Source: mevzuat.gov.tr · last reviewed: 2026-05-12
- TBK m.12Freedom of form and its exceptions
Original (Turkish, official):
MADDE 12- Sözleşmelerin geçerliliği, kanunda aksi öngörülmedikçe, hiçbir şekle bağlı değildir. Kanunda sözleşmeler için öngörülen şekil, kural olarak geçerlilik şeklidir. Öngörülen şekle uyulmaksızın kurulan sözleşmeler hüküm doğurmaz.
English summary (non-binding):
Unless statute provides otherwise, the validity of contracts is not subject to any form. Forms prescribed by statute are, as a rule, validity forms; contracts concluded in disregard of the prescribed form produce no effect.
Source: mevzuat.gov.tr · last reviewed: 2026-05-12
The statutory provisions are reproduced for information purposes only. The current and official text on mevzuat.gov.tr is authoritative.
Conclusion
Disputes over whether a contract has come into being typically turn on the nature of the offer, the timing of acceptance and agreement on the essential elements. In significant transactions, drafting the offer and acceptance clearly and in writing prevents the great majority of later disputes.
This article is for information purposes only and does not constitute legal advice. If you would like professional assistance on a specific matter, you may request a consultation.
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